Piaget Theory of Children Cognitive Development Essay

Much of the research since the late 1950s on the development of role taking and moral judgments has its roots in the research conducted by Piaget in the 1920s. One thrust of Piaget’s theorizing in his earliest writings dealt with the proposition that children progress from an egocentric to a perspectivistic state. He proposed that children younger than 6 or 7 years of age do not clearly differentiate between self and others or between thoughts (the psychological) and external events. A consequence of the failure to differentiate the self from others is that the child is unable to take the perspective of another person. For instance, in communicating with others the child is unable to take into account the requirements of the listener. A consequence of the failure to differentiate thoughts from external events is that the child attributes an objective reality to internal mental events such as dreams. A major developmental transition was posited to occur when the child shifts from an egocentric state to one in which the self is differentiated from others and there is the ability to take another’s perspective. (Angela M. O’Donnell, Alison King, 1999) However, the most extensive research in a social domain undertaken by Piaget during this early period dealt with children’s moral judgments. Those were also the only studies on moral development to be done by Piaget. Three specific aspects of Piaget’s moral development theory had a substantial influence on later research. One was the characterization of moral development as a process of differentiating moral from nonmoral judgments. The second was the proposed interrelations between â€Å"general† cognitive orientations and moral judgments. And the third was the proposed relations between changes in perspective-taking abilities and changes in moral judgments. (Jacques Montangero, Danielle Maurice-Naville, Angela Cornu-Wells, 1997). Piaget proposed that children progress through two moral judgment levels (following an early premoral phase), the first being labeled heteronomous (generally corresponding to ages 3 to 8 years) and the second labeled autonomous. In the heteronomous level, the child has unilateral respect for adults (regarded as authority) and morality is, therefore, based on conformity. The right or good is seen by the child as adherence to externally determined and fixed rules and commands. The young child’s morality of conformity and unilateral respect becomes transformed into a morality of cooperation and mutual respect. The basis for the autonomous level is the emergence of concepts of reciprocity and equality. At this level, rules are viewed as products of mutual agreement, serving the aims of cooperation, and thus are regarded as changeable. (Gwen Bredendieck Fischer, 1999). In formulating the levels of heteronomy and autonomy, Piaget studied children’s judgments about several specific issues, including rules, punishment, intentionality, lying, stealing, and distributive justice. A brief description of the levels can be provided by considering some of the studies of children’s thinking about rules and about intentionality in situations involving property damage, deceit, and theft. The definitions of the moral levels were derived, in part, from the way Piaget had framed children’s general cognitive capacities. Two presumed characteristics regarding the increasing differentiations that occur with development were relevant. One proposed characteristic was the child’s egocentricism, the failure to clearly distinguish the self’s perspective from that of others. A second relevant feature was the young child’s failure to differentiate the physical world from social and mental phenomena; young children confuse the subjective and objective aspects of their experience. (Richard I. Evans, Eleanor Duckworth, 1973) According to Piaget, one concrete manifestation of young children’s inability to differentiate perspectives and to differentiate the physical from the social is their attitudes toward social rules. It was proposed that children at the heteronomous level view all social rules as absolute. The inability to take the perspective of others leads the child to assume that everyone adheres to the same rules. There is a failure to comprehend the possibility that rules may be relative to the social context or to an individual’s perspective. In turn, there is an inability to clearly distinguish physical from social phenomena that leads to a confusion of social regularities with physical regularities, such that social rules are seen as fixed in much the same way as are physical regularities. For instance, Piaget maintained that children regard rules of games as unchangeable; they believe it would be wrong to modify the rules of a game even if they were changed by general consensus. (Harry Morgan, 1997) Another manifestation of the young child’s cognitive confusions is that judgments of right and wrong are based on the material consequences of actions, rather than the actor’s intentions or motives. Piaget examined the relative importance that children attribute to intentions and consequences in situations involving material damage, lying, and stealing. Younger children, it was found, attribute greater importance, in judging culpability, to amount of damage (e. g. , breaking the 15 cups accidentally is worse than breaking one cup intentionally), whereas older children attribute more importance to the intentions of the actor. Similarly, younger children assess the wrongness of lying or stealing, not by the motives of the actor, but by their quantitative deviation from the truth or the amount stolen. In judgments about theft, for instance, children judging by consequences would say that stealing a larger amount to give to a very poor friend is worse than stealing a lesser amount for oneself. (R. Clarke Fowler, 1998). In contrast with the heteronomous level, at the autonomous level respect is no longer unilateral, rules are not viewed as absolute or fixed, and judgments are based on intentions. Piaget proposed that these changes are stimulated by the increasing interactions with peers (such as in school) and the decreasing orientation to relations with adult authority that usually occurs during late childhood. Relations with authorities (parents, teachers, etc. ), he maintained, are likely to lead to conformity and an attitude of unilateral respect on the part of the young child. That is, the child feels that the authorities are superior and that their dictates are right by virtue of their superior status. In order for the shift from a heteronomous to an autonomous orientation to occur the child must more clearly differentiate the self from others and, thereby, be able to take the perspective of others. Relations with adult authorities who impose external rules upon the child are likely to reinforce a heteronomous orientation, whereas relations with peers are more likely to stimulate attempts to take the perspectives of others. Therefore, through increasing interactions with those he or she can relate to on an equal footing, the child is stimulated to view his or her own perspective as one among many different perspectives. In the process, mutual respect replaces unilateral respect for authority and the bases of a sense of justice — reciprocity, equality, and cooperation — emerge. Rules are then regarded as social constructions, based on agreement, that serve functions shared by the participants of social interactions. The increasing awareness of others’ perspectives and subjective intentions leads to judgments that are based on intentionality rather than consequences. (John H. Flavell, 1963) In addition to the connections to general cognitive capacities, Piaget’s characterization of moral judgments was a global one in that development was defined as entailing a progressive differentiation of principles of justice (ought) from the habitual, customary, and conventional (is). In essence, the claim was that concepts of justice do not emerge until the autonomous stage. Thus, the heteronomous morality of constraint and unilateral respect is a morality of custom, convention and tradition, while autonomous morality of mutual respect and cooperation prevails over custom and convention. Prior to the development of concepts of justice, therefore, the child must progress through the â€Å"simpler,† conformity-based conventional orientation. In sum, Piaget proposed a model of development as the differentiation of domains of knowledge. Only at more advanced stages are moral judgments and knowledge of the social order (or even morality and physical law) distinguished. It is precisely on this basis that Piaget thought it was methodologically valid to examine children’s concepts of rules of marble games as a means to understanding their moral reasoning. (Christopher M. Kribs-Zaleta, D’Lynn Badshaw, 2003) Piaget’s professional career has been devoted to exploring the possibilities of a psychological theory of relativity. In this approach neither the subject, who knows, nor the object, which is known, have absolute status. Each is conditioned on the other within a continually changing framework. Change occurs through interchanges of actions and reactions. Actions of the subject are like probes equivalent to statements by which the subject says: â€Å"I think you, the object, are such and such. † When acted upon, objects act back, revealing who and what they are. Morton Ann Gernsbacher, Sharon J. Derry, 1998) Piaget’s contribution to the study of knowledge has been to escape the philosophic traps of subjectivity and objectivity. The former makes knowledge a self satisfying concoction where, for the sake of consistency, the subject creates concepts of objects and reality. This position tends toward error through failure to come to grips with the facts of reality. It puts the subject in control of deciding what reality is and, in the extreme, allows distortion for the sake of maintaining the subject’s version of how things ought to be. Objectivity errs at the other end and, in its extreme, denies self-initiated definition, making the subject only a valid recorder of reality. Distortion can occur either through exposure to odd circumstances or through breakdowns in the subject’s recording devices. The position of relativity seeks solution to both problems. Its clearest expression is found when both subject and object are given defining powers in their interactions. There is double agency, with the object telling what it is just as forcibly as the subject reveals itself through its actions. (Hans G. Furth, 1987) With interactions as the basic reality, the context of knowledge is dynamic. It is also the means to knowledge insofar as subject and object are able to extract orderly relations from their interactions. These relations among actions and reactions color definitions of both agents. They are the medium for knowing and provide the terms by which subject and object attain their forms. This is why, for example, Piaget argues that space, number, and the like, remain open to redefinition throughout development. Numbers are not things to be grasped but are products from relations abstracted from subject-object interactions. True relations become expressed through numbering operations, which coordinate actions of the subject as well as reactions of objects. It appears that Piaget’s approach is unique among contemporary psychological theories by its treatment of relations as the topic of knowledge. Relations are primary, with subject and object being their products. For other theorists, these terms are reversed; subject and object are posited and relations come secondarily. In Piaget’s scheme, neither subject nor object ever gets to know one another with certainty. Together they can work only toward relations that are reliable. Validity is always a relative matter, depending on current relations, which remain open to further redefinition. (Arthur J. Baroody, Alexis Benson, 2001) This point no doubt has stymied most attempts to bring Piaget’s work into the mainstream of psychological theories. It is like the essential key without which notes may sound similar but actually render a different song. The stumbling block is evident, for example, in the many ways phenomena originally generated by Piaget’s position have undergone alteration when considered from the view of more familiar theories. Conservation provides the most telling illustration. Few, if any, of these alternative explanations deal with or care to deal with the phenomenon as a conservation of a subject-object relation. The more common explanation states that number or amount is conceived as constant through physical changes in the object. Within Piaget’s framework, the physical changes are said to remain constant; they are understood as but two versions of a single relation. The relation is between number- or amount-making actions, with their products made ostensible in the reactions of cubes, chips, or clay. Leslie Smith, Julie Dockrell, Peter Tomlinson, 1997) There is a tendency among contemporary theorists to credit Piaget with having shown that children are cognitively active and control rather than being controlled by external objects or other persons. This emphasis has clouded the fact that objects and persons are not benign, simply waiting for children to transform them into this or that concep tion. In order to put relations in clear relief, it is helpful to give these things their proper due in knowledge. It helps even to anthropomorphize their role. Objects are as active as children. They move, change shape, enlarge in size, fall off tables, roll, and otherwise respond when they are contacted. Each reaction is reciprocal to something children do. In the case of conservation, to use an example often cited by Piaget, the child who plays with pebbles in his or her back yard may come to understand number making operations because the stones react as they do to his or her manipulations. That which remains constant in making a row, then a circle, then a tower, and next two columns is only the relation among these actions from the child and the several reactions of the pebbles. (Leonora M. Cohen, Younghee M. Kim, 1999). It is now possible to outline the meaning of relations in the social domain where knowledge is based on interactions between the child and other persons. The following sketch highlights the general points of the theory. (a) Children enter the world as actors, seeking order and regularity. This search describes their inherent motivation for knowledge. b) Children look for order first in their own actions by attempting to find that which is repeatable and reliable in execution of actions. (c) Insofar as actions make contact with other things, or persons, effects of actions are not solely under the control of the child. These things react in reciprocity to the actions exerted upon them and together the action and reaction produce effects that differ from those that would result from either alone. (d) This fact of double agency naturally widens children’s focus from action to interaction. Because other agents act in reciprocity to children’s actions, children are forced to seek explanations for change and order in the interplay between actors. The foregoing points can be summarized as follows. Suppose the child intends that an action have a particular outcome or effect. The child then executes the act in accordance with this intention. Suppose also that the act engages another person who adds to the original act with a reaction. The coupling of these actions may have an effect that is different from the child’s intention or anticipation in performing the original act. It would be futile to seek order either in the child’s or the other person’s parts, alone. This is why for Piaget, the child is led to seek a solution in the coupling and arrives at the conclusion that the actions of persons are reciprocally related. This is also why Piaget contends that naive egocentrism ends most probably during the child’s first year. To maintain an egocentric posture, a child would have to deny the facts of reciprocity made evident through the thousands of interactions experienced in everyday dealings with other persons. Joy A. Palmer, Liora Bresler, David E. Cooper, 2001) (e) Thereafter, the child’s search for order turns to identifying the forms of reciprocal relations that occur in interpersonal interactions. (f) Piaget suggests that there are two such forms. One is a direct and symmetrical reciprocity where one’s action is free to match or counter the other’s action. The second is a reciprocity of complement where one’s action must conform to the dictates set down by the other’s action. g) These two forms describe the basic relations in which people order themselves as actors with respect to other persons, who are also actors. They provide the epistemic unit from which self and other achieve definition. (h) For Piaget, development proceeds as these relations are structured and restructured. They give rise to social and moral conceptions that pertain to the self, other persons, possible relations among persons, and principles of societal functioning, both practical as well as ideal. (Gavin Nobes, Chris Pawson, 2003)

For or against racial profiling Essay Essay

Write an essay that presents your opinion on racial profiling. Begin with a debatable thesis statement. Then follow the guidelines for writing an argument essay. As you write your essay, be sure you support your opinions with reasons. ESSAY OUTLINE INTRODUCTION (5-7 sentences) 1. Hook (1-2 sentences) 2. Background information (3-4 sentences) 3. Thesis Statement (1-2 sentences) BODY PARAGRAPH 1 (REASON 1) 1. Topic Sentence (1 sentence) 2. One piece of evidence with citation 3. Commentary sentences (2-3 sentences) 4. Second piece of evidence with citation 5. Commentary sentences (2-3 sentences) 6. Transition/ Closing Sentence (1 sentence) BODY PARAGRAPH 2 (REASON 2) 1. Topic Sentence (1 sentence) 2. One piece of evidence with citation 3. Commentary sentences (2-3 sentences) 4. Second piece of evidence with citation 5. Commentary sentences (2-3 sentences) 6. Transition/ Closing Sentence (1 sentence) BODY PARAGRAPH 3 (COUNTERARGUMENT AND REFUTATION) 1. Topic Sentence (1 sentence) 2. Opposing side’s argument evidence with citation 3. Refutation argument 1 (2-3 sentences) 4. Refutation 2 (2-3 sentences) 5. Transition/ Closing Sentence (1 sentence) CONCLUSION (5-7 sentences) 1. Restate your thesis statement 2. Sum up your two arguments 3. Ask â€Å"so what?† questions (2-3 sentences) BRAINSTORM ARGUMENTS Arguments for racial profiling Arguments against racial profiling *In persuasion, we use the term arguments to mean reasons. Which arguments do you find most persuasive? Which side will you argue in your essay? I will argue that __________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________. My 2 arguments will be (choose 2 from the table above): The best argument for the opposing side is ___________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________. Thesis Statement (main idea of my essay): __________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________. FINDING EVIDENCE Now that you have your thesis statement and your arguments laid out, you need to find evidence to support those arguments. EVIDENCE CAN INCLUDE: Facts from your sources (newspaper articles, USDA website) Statistics Quotes from experts like spokespeople for companies, university professors, scientists who study nutrition, and experts on psychology or advertising Personal experiences or observations Go through your articles in the racial profiling packet and put an arrow next to any evidence you may plan to use for your two main arguments and your argument for the opposing side. Write the number of the body paragraph (1,2,3) next the evidence you plan to use in your essay. TWO SAMPLE MLA IN-TEXT CITATIONS 1. Introduce the source and author In â€Å"If You Pitch It, They Will Eat† Davis Barboza argues, â€Å"Television, of course, remains the most powerful medium for selling to children† (39). 2. Put whole citation after the quote (author and page number) The article says, â€Å"Television, of course, remains the most powerful medium for selling to children† (Barboza 39). Never ever write (pg. 39)!!!!! MLA NEWSPAPER CITATION A works cited page always puts the sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name and is double-spaced. FORMAT Author’s last name, first name. â€Å" Title of the article †. Newspaper publisher. Day month year of publication, Pages. SAMPLE CITATION Barboza, David. â€Å"If You Pitch It, They Will Eat†. The New York Times. 3 Aug. 2003, 37-41. RACIAL PROFILING ESSAY: BODY PARAGRAPH 1 OUTLINE TOPIC SENTENCE EVIDENCE/QUOTE 1 with source (â€Å"article title† and author) COMMENTARY (Why is this evidence important? How does it relate to the thesis?) EVIDENCE/QUOTE 2 with source (â€Å"article title† and author) COMMENTARY (Why is this evidence important? How does it relate to the thesis?) TRANSITION/ CLOSING SENTENCE RACIAL PROFILING ESSAY: BODY PARAGRAPH 2 OUTLINE TOPIC SENTENCE EVIDENCE/QUOTE 1 with source (â€Å"article title† and author) COMMENTARY (Why is this evidence important? How does it relate to the thesis?) EVIDENCE/QUOTE 2 with source (â€Å"article title† and author) COMMENTARY (Why is this evidence important? How does it relate to the thesis?) TRANSITION/ CLOSING SENTENCE BODY PARAGRAPH 3 COUNTERARGUMENT AND REFUTATION The topic sentence for body paragraph 3 will be the opposing side’s argument and will include one piece of evidence to support their claim (the opposite of your thesis). For your two refutations you will explain why the opposing side is wrong. Use two pieces of evidence to support your argument. TOPIC SENTENCE (OPPOSING SIDE’S ARGUMENT) OPPOSING EVIDENCE/QUOTE REFUTATION 1 EVIDENCE REFUTATION 2 EVIDENCE TRANSITION/ CLOSING SENTENCE

Indian Apparel Market Research Report

Indian Apparel Market Research Report By MD. FAISAL BBA (Studying) Major in International Business University of Dhaka Bangladesh E-mail: faisal. [email  protected] om The Indian apparel industry has a vast existence in the economic life of the country. It plays a critical role in the economic development of the country with its contribution to industrial output, export earnings of the country and the generation of employment. The Indian apparel industry has seen remarkable changes in the past few years and it is also one of the India's largest foreign exchange earners. Embroidery being the traditional art form of the country has contributed hugely for apparel industry. Indian embroidery market stands out as being extraordinary in the international markets. The Indian Market The Indian consumer is evolving and driving retail growth in India and companies in the fashion industry are reacting to this evolution through myriad options. The fashion market in India is witnessing strong growth owing to a young population, an increase in disposable incomes, which is leading to increase in consumption and thus the rapid growth in organized retail. Private consumption growth contributes to more than half of the GDP growth and is growing in double digit figures. Several businesses are reacting to this evolution positively, both through pull and push phenomenon. Apparel today has the largest share of the modern organised retail in India i. e. 20% of the current market of Rs. 56,000 crore and this is expected to grow at a constant rate of 20% over the next 4 years. Bilateral Co-operation in this sector shows great synergies. An Indo Italia Task Force on Fashion Design and life Style products has been created following an agreement between the Indian Ministry of Commerce and Italian Ministry of International Trade. On the Indian side members include FICCI – Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry , NID – National Institure of Design while on the Italian side there is Confindustria, Altagamma, Universita’ Bocconi, ICE. With India being the second fastest growing major economy in the world, fashion industry is pushing itself to keep pace with the retail evolution witnessed in India. Facts and Figures The global textiles and apparel trade estimated at US$ 450 billion and expected to touch US$ 700 billion by 2010 with demand for textiles and apparels expected to grow to 25 per cent from current figures where Asia will contribute 85 per cent. Clothing, textile and fashion accessories form 39 per cent of the Rs 55,000 crore organized retailing in India. The Italian designer Giorgio Armani's company has signed a joint venture with India's most valuable real estate firm, DLF. Giorgio Armani Holding, a wholly-owned subsidiary of the Italian company, will take 51 percent in the venture, the maximum allowed for a single-brand foreign retailer in India. Armani will bring 10 million rupees ($250,000) to the venture, which would also act as a wholesaling firm supplying Armani-branded products to other independent retailers. The first Armani stores would be set up in New Delhi. Reliance Brands, a subsidiary of Reliance Retail, has entered into a 49:51 joint venture with Italian fashion house, Sixty Group, to retail its brands in India. DLF has tied up with Armani ,Dolce & Gabbana Raymond, the Gautam Singhania owned ‘house of complete men,’ has joined hands, in a Rs. 50 crore, 50:50 joint venture, with the Italian fashion major Grotto Spa bringing in premium â€Å"GAS† brand apparel in India. Other Italian Brands in India are Gruppo Cadini, Gucci, Ermenegildo Zegna, Corneliani,Canali, Brioni, and Pal Zileri India’s asset base for this sector – Numerous qualified and semi-qualified manpower which is skilled and low on cost of Long drawn tradition of having produced high quality textiles for decades. Apparel Market Consumer spending on apparel in India has grown over the last five years, touching the global benchmark of 5 per cent of the total income During the three years 2004-05 to 2006-07, investments in the textile sector has increased from US$ 2. 94 billion to US$ 7. 85 billion. In 2007, men's apparel industry was mainly dominated by shirts (in value terms) accounting for 36. 5% of total men's segment. India's textiles and apparels industry is estimated to be worth US$49 billion where 39 per cent is accounted by the exports market. Currently India has a 3. -4 per cent share in world export of textiles and 3 per cent in clothing exports. Europe continues to be India's major export market with 22 per cent share in textiles and 43 per cent in apparel; the US is the single largest buyer of Indian textiles and apparel with 19 per cent and 32. 6 per cent share respectively. Readymade garments (RMG) are the largest export segment, accounting for 45 per cent of total textile exports and 8. 2 per cent of India's total exports. Future The demand for ready-made garments in rural India will surge at an annual rate of 16. 50% to reach Rs. 42,918 Crore or US$10. 1 billion by 2010. Men's apparel industry will increase at a CAGR of 14. 86% during the two-year period from 2008 to 2010. Women apparel market (in value terms) is anticipated to grow at an annual averaged growth rate of 17. 79% till 2010. The organized apparel retailing in India is projected to surge at an annual averaged growth rate of 30% from 2008 to reach Rs. 52,289 Crore in 2010. Increasing at a CAGR of 24%, branded apparel industry for men will cross Rs. 25,000 Crore by 2010. n Increasing at an annual averaged growth rate of 25%, branded apparel industry for women is expected to hit Rs. 8,351 Crore by 2010. Readymade garments exports from India are expected to touch US$ 14. 5 billion by 2009-10 with a cumulative annual growth of 18 to 20 per cent, according to Apparel Export Promotion Council. Versace pret-e-porte is another Italian fashion house at the lower end of the fashion pyramid that is in the final stages of tying up with Reliance Brands to bring its products to India. Gas eyes US$49. 82m sales by 2011. The company will invest Rs500m till 2010 on its retail expansion, marketing and brand building in India. Gas may do local production outsourcing for sub-Rs1,000 range. Shoppers' Stop is planning to enter the luxury retail segment with large format retail stores which will house products from many of well-known luxury brands, including Louis Vuitton, Gucci, Zegna, Hugo Boss, YSL, Mont Blanc and Christian Dior. The company plans to invest Rs. 100 crore in this model in the first year itself. The organized lingerie retail market in India is expected to touch Rs 4,000 Crore mark by 2009. IT revenue from the retail segment is forecasted to grow at an annual averaged growth rate of 43. 41% by 2010. The Indian fashion industry is expected to rise at a stupendous pace of 22. 7% through 2012. Government Initiatives 100 per cent FDI allowed through the automatic route. Currently, 100 per cent foreign direct investment is allowed in wholesale trade, but only 51 per cent in single brand outlets. De-reservation of readymade garments, hosiery and knitwear from the SSI sector. Technology Mission on Cotton has been launched to make available quality raw material a t competitive prices. Technology Up gradation Fund Scheme (TUFS) has been launched to facilitate the modernisation and up gradation of the textiles industry. Scheme for Integrated Textile Park (SITP) has been started to provide world class infrastructure facilities for setting up their textile units through the Public Private Partnership model. The Apparel International Mart, in Gurgaon, will provide world class facility to apparel exporters to showcase their products and to serve as a one-stop-shop for reputed international buyers. The Indian Textile Plaza is being built, in Ahmedabad, to encourage exports to overseas markets. 50 textile parks are being established to enhance manufacturing capacity and ncrease the industry's cost competitiveness. The Government plans to set up a technology mission on technical textiles with an aim to attract investment into the sector. The Government has increased the plan allocation for textiles by 66. 27 per cent in 2007-08 over that of 2006-07, making it one of the only two ministries that have seen such a high level of increase in budgetary support. The Indian consumer desires to possess internationa l luxury brands as an inspirational product. Additionally, no Indian retail brand actually qualifies to be categorised as a luxury brand. This readiness for luxury as an organised market, has been recognised throughout the world and international luxury brands are exploring possible avenues and tie-ups to enter the Indian retail market. Indian apparel companies have realised the huge potential of partnering with these global luxury brands wishing to enter India. This helps them not only to extend their portfolio into the luxury, super premium, premium segments, but also makes them probable sourcing partners for these brands in India as well as internationally. Vice versa, luxury brands gain access to well established distribution channels and customer base.

Marked Women Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marked Women - Assignment Example This in itself is part of the problem; because women are marked, their opinions don’t count and they are encouraged not to speak out. I feel that Tannen is exploring uncovered territory as far as gender imbalances are concerned. What Tannen really does well is use her experience of observing both men and women at a small working conference. This is the best place in which to find unconscious gender stereotypes because of the formal setting. Women can also be marked in every day life, but it is more pronounced in a male-dominated business world. Because women feel that they have to conform to a certain type of image, this only shows that they themselves feel as though they are marked. I found it really interesting about the mention Ralph Fascold’s book and his thoughts on the topic. To be marked literally means to be different and have a defining feature that sets someone apart. From a biological point of view, it makes sense for males to be considered marked because they have a Y chromosome, something which women do not possess. Women will only be considered â€Å"unmarked† if society changes its attitude towards women, although this will probably take many

Before the law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Before the law - Essay Example The law may be interpreted in very many ways. It may have a religious angle whereby the law represents a source of moral rightness and justice. This may mean that when one wants to find right thing or justice, all they need to do is to make an effort. According to the story it seems that justice is accessible to anyone with the audacity to take risks in order to find it. â€Å"the gate to the law stands open, as always†¦Ã¢â‚¬ 1 (Kafka para 5). The man from the country had his chance, but he chose to sit down on it. He was too afraid to make the effort to defy the dissenting voice of the door keeper and go through the gate like he was supposed to (Lima 183). That door had been his to go through but he seems to have too afraid of the first obstacle he encountered to think of alternative ways to get in (Kafka, Corngold and Greenberg 13). To this man, what he was looking for was so near, and yet so far. I think that the law in this case is a kind of a guideline for how life should be lived. Accessing this guideline and knowing how to live is the only way to be happy. The man in the parable does not know how to access the law and he is not creative enough to want to find out how he can gain entry (Kafka, Corngold and Greenberg 16). In life, many people search for what they can do to live happily. Sometimes, they find the path leading to a happy life, by they cannot gain access to the happy life simply because someone is standing on their way. They may end up in the same spot waiting for the right time to come so that they may get a chance to go where they want, but that chance might never come (Lima 184). This story impacts my life in many ways. The man from the country represents so many people who are too afraid to go the extra mile in search for the true meaning of life and happiness. â€Å"But the gatekeeper says he cannot grant him entry at the moment†2 (Kafka). Just like the man from the country, there are those people who believe every negative thing they hear. They know where to look but they do not have the courage to venture in. They instead listen to those voices around them that tell them that they cannot go in (Lima 187). In the meantime, they spend so much of their time and resources trying to please these people who will never let them have the true happiness and contentment that they are looking for. I have learnt from this story that I have the power to open and enter the gates through which I can find true satisfaction and happiness. I do not have to listen to other people w

Legal memoranda Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Legal memoranda - Research Proposal Example The episode has also attracted class action for damages under ss 82 of the Trade Practices Act by a number of customers, led by the Pharmacists Association of Australia. Can any agreed statement of facts between DIARCOR and the ACCC be used as evidence against DIARCOR in any subsequent civil damages proceedings that its former clients may be seeking to bring against it Any agreed statement of facts between DIARCOR and the ACCC is bound to cover issues that the former clients of DIARCOR may be seeking to bring against the latter. It is difficult to predict with certainty whether the statement of fact could be used as evidence by aggrieved clients. It depends on the nature and extent of punitive measures ACCC metes out to DIARCOR. It also depends on the contents of the statement of facts and the court's verdict. As statutory authority, ACCC is in the right position to consider damages under ss 45, 45A and 82 of the Trade Practices Act and submit a proposal to the court that must assuage the grievances of the clients besides settling with a deterrent fine for DIARCOR. (Focus on Competition Law July 2001) The statement of facts is not a single format. It comes in various forms. Ideally, statement of facts must leave no scope for dispute. However, this is not possible all the time. In some cases, there may be certain points of dispute or contention where the two parties have agreed to disagree for the time being, or which a statutory authority like ACCC has allowed to be left pending due to insufficient time or data with an undertaking to wrap up the pending issues within a certain time limit. (Preparation for Hearing) There is also the issue that DIARCOR cannot be tried two or more times for the same offence. The relevant factors that the Court will take into account when assessing the quantum of the pecuniary penalty The main charge against DIARCOR, DISY and CALENDEX is that they have been involved in the nefarious activity of price fixing for quite some time. The managing director of DIARCOR has informed that they have been involved in the price fixing cartel for about five years. The price fixing arrangements were done verbally in secret rendezvous so that they do not leave any paper trial. The court will rely on circumstantial evidence in the absence of material proof. The court will also go into the enormity of the contraventions under ss 45, 45A and 82 of the Trade Practices Act 1974. Under these subsections, the court will examine the extent of gains made by unfair means by the price fixing cartel under ss 45, evidence of the price fixing charges regardless of any loss to competition under ss 45A, and losses and/or damages suffered by competition due to the cartel and the quantum of penalties to be imposed on the cartel as fines under ss 45 and 45A (Local Government and the Trade Practices Act), and recoveries for loss suffered on behalf of the competition

Film review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Film review - Essay Example Mean Streets illustrates the hierarchies in the criminal underworld and the disparities and want that afflict crime agents at the lower cadre of the shadowy organizations. The film follows through the lives and fate of two main characters, Charlie and Johny boy who endure the torments and challenges of the criminal world in their respective ways. One of the characters, Charlie aspires to re-establish connections with his moral and spiritual self while the other appears destined for self-destruction as a matter of individual weaknesses. The choice and performance of characters in this film add to the quality and authenticity of the film as each one of them portrays the natural qualities that are expected of criminal actors. In sum, the actions and attitudes of the characters are nearly in perfect consistency with their assigned roles. Most precisely, the characters of Johny boy and Charlie are brought out in perfect harmony with the reality of criminal agents. The two characters fit well into their roles without the mismatch of maintaining the balance of action and character. The disintegration and dehumanization of Johny boy is captured in grim details that illustrate the affliction and erosion of personality as the individual gets sucked deeper in the vaults of criminality. On the other hand, the character of Charlie is used as a foil to reflect on the evident descent of Johny boy into an ignoble human that is incapable of sustaining any meaningful engagement even with his most trusted ally, Charlie (Scorsese). Charlie’s situation is used to direct the viewer to the often-ignored facts of the criminal world. From his character, we learn that not all players in the criminal world are unrepentant and rigid. Criminality is brought out as any other social condition that could suck any person within the society through temptation or peer pressure. For instance,

Discussion Board Post Response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Board Post Response - Essay Example For instance, many of the employees look demoralized in their activities as they feel devalued as their contributions in terms of input to the budget formulation does not matter (Zelman, McCue and Glick, 2009)). There is however one issue in particular I am interested in and would want you to clarify. Does your organization has a specific way of collecting employees, supervisors, and lower-level managers ideas or contributions to the budget? Does it happen during weekly meetings or do the employees forward their contributions or input to their supervisors who then forward it to the top managers? Martusciello, your post was interesting and I learnt a lot from your research. I had not imagined that a change in staffing matrix could be reason enough to deviate from a budget as you have noted in your post. It is true that when cases where some of the staff resigns or are on leave puts the management in a hard situation whereby they have to hire new employees temporarily. This according to Zelman, McCue and Glick (2009) translates to additional expenses as such expenditure in terms of salaries for the temporary staff is not initially planned. I also agree that unplanned situations such as an influx or surge in the number of patients could cause deviation from a budget. Your organization did the right thing to employ the additional eleven nurses to float to units. I am interested to know, did the surge in patients affect the nurses in any way in terms of burnout and elevated stress levels? Zelman, W., McCue, M., & Glick, N. (2009).Financial management of health care organizations: An introduction to fundamental tools, concepts, and applications(3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass. Retrieved from the Walden Library

Diversity in my city Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Diversity in my city - Essay Example The other races that take the rest of the population are equally advantaged to increased access to infrastructure brought about by the socio-economic and political influence of the dominant white race. The existing cultural diversity in our neighborhood has led to multilingual characteristic of the population. This is observed through many races like Asians speaking their local languages while at the same time speaking English as the national language. The challenge this poses is in the comparatively poor quality of English spoken by non-white races which translates to their under representation in socio-economic and political structure of the larger society. The higher active population has led to increased labor force but level of education variance means more whites are in employment as other races languish in relative poverty and high unemployment. However, the cultural diversity has seen the neighborhood reflect unity in terms of one national language speaking in English and increased campaign for affirmative action of an inclusive socio-economic growth across all the cultural entities in the neighborhood. The large and diverse cultural group has also lead to larger market fo r variety of goods and services hence vibrant local

How American football works Essay Example for Free

How American football works Essay Football, also known as American football, is a team game that combines strategy and physical play. The object of football is to advance the ball up the field by running and passing the ball, and scoring a touchdown by crossing the ball into the end zone. Professional football, high school football, and college football are all highly popular spectator sports in the United States. Football History Football originated from a primitive game of rugby played in America in the 1840s. In 1880, Walter Camp, considered the Father of American Football, exchanged the traditional rugby scrum for a line of scrimmage. In 1882, the four down system was introduced to negate Princeton and Yales strategy to hold the ball without trying to score. The following year, Camp reduced the number of players to eleven, and introduced the seven-man offensive line, with a quarterback, two halfbacks, and a full back. The first professional game was played in 1895. The National Football League (NFL) began in the early 1920s. Today, football is one of the most popular sports in the United States. Football Rules Football is played by two teams, with eleven players from each team on the field at a time. A football field is 120 yards long and 53 1/3 yards wide, including a field of 100 yards and two end zones of ten yards each. A game of football consists of four 12-15 minute quarters, depending on the level of play. The game begins with a coin toss. The winning team gets to decide if they would like to receive the ball, or which end of the field they would like to defend in the first half. One team then kicks the ball to the other team. A kick off occurs at the beginning of each half, and after every score. The team that takes control of the ball has four attempts, called downs, in which to advance the ball ten yards. When the offense succeeds in gaining ten yards they receive a new set of downs. If the offensive team fails to gain ten yards after four plays, the other team gets possession of the ball. The ball is put into play by a snap, where the center passes the ball between his legs to the quarterback. The quarterback then has the option to throw or run the ball. Once the quarterback passes the line of scrimmage (an imaginary line across the field from where the ball was snapped), they can no longer throw the ball forward. A down ends when: The player with the ball is tackled to the ground, or has their forward motion stopped by the opposing team; A pass is thrown out of bounds or hits the ground; The ball or player with the ball goes out of bounds; A team scores. An official blows their whistle to signal that a down is over. A change of possession occurs when: A team fails to gain ten yards after four plays; A team kicks the ball off after a score, or at the beginning of a half; A team chooses to punt the ball; A player from the defensive team catches a pass in the air (interception); An offensive player drops the ball after displaying they had possession and a defensive player recovers it (fumble). After a kickoff, punt, interception, or fumble, the ball is live, and the team gaining possession can run with the ball up field. A touchdown is worth six points. A team scores a touchdown when a player runs into or catches a pass in the opponents end zone. After scoring a touchdown, a team has the option to attempt an extra point by trying to kick the ball through the upright. Teams can elect to go for two points and attempt to drive the ball into the end zone on one play, starting from the two or three yard line (depending on level of play). A team scores a field goal, worth three points, by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts. A team scores a safety, worth two points, if an opposing player is downed in the end zone. The team with the most points at the end of the game wins. Football Tips Good football players are agile. Agility drills include: jumping rope, running through tires, and jumping over cones. There are a variety of lesser contact versions of Football available. Tackle Football is the sport practiced by major professional leagues such as the NFL, but flag football and touch football are varieties that allow the player to be tackled by either touching with two hands or pulling a piece of ribbon or flag off the opposing player. This also allows for Co-ed or womens teams to engage without fear of injury. Football Equipment Football requires each player to have a helmet, shoulder pads, football pants, cleats, and a mouth guard. The game is played with a spheroid shape leather ball. A football is 11 inches long and 22 inches in circumference in the middle.

Impact of Globalisation and FDI on Chinese Labour Law

Impact of Globalisation and FDI on Chinese Labour Law The Impact of Globalisation and Foreign Direct Investment on Chinese Labour Law and Policy Appetiser There I was, situated in Shanghai as part of a new student program with the University of Sydney. I drew back the curtains of my hotel suite on the thirtieth floor and beheld the Shanghai skyline. I had been told that not a single building was more than ten years old and I believed it. Before me stood a futuristic New York with sturdy glass skyscrapers towering above the masses as they went about their day on rudimentary cycles. I felt Caucasian and large in a world of physically short men and women whose world was running away from all that they had been and understood. I almost felt as though I were more at home in this strange, capital leviathan of structures, fitting precariously at the doorstep of wealth and clutching like a lost child to the parent sleeve of communism. Over the next four weeks I would study the impact of globalisation on China’s economical, political and social traditions. I was to tear away at the old fabric of a people’s country and in my own way seemingly justify intellectual property, uneven distributions of wealth and a drive for profits in this world that was steadily before my eyes, turning from red to green. Those students who had come before me had ignored the sheer impact of such factors on this socialist world. They focused merely on the steps that would need to be taken to eradicate bad habits that were hostile to Foreign Direct Investment. Yet the irony was that each and every one of us would venture into the markets and pick up accurate knock-offs of Prada and Hugo Boss for a fraction of their genuine retail value. I did however choose to focus on the people that remained behind the curtain of global market triumph. These were men and women whose lives were left uncertain in a country now becoming more a nd more devoid of lifetime guaranteed jobs. I wondered at their predicament, I focused on thinking of the changes to their lives and hoped that they would understand that it was all for the best. Nicola L Tysoe Introduction The clear combination of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) welcoming policies and a relatively low cost economy spells a formula which, with the addition of cheap labour will become an area that foreign investors are only too happy to target by means of outsourcing the bulk of their services to the People’s Republic of China (PRC). China is rapidly growing in strength into a super power of the future and it becomes necessary to take a good look at the anatomy of this prosperous period of growth. This paper will begin in Chapter one by focusing on the substantive legal reforms that have been brought on by China’s bid for a more FDI welcoming environment. This will begin by giving an historical account of the social factors that encouraged reform Chapter two will then provide substantive analysis of the Chinese Labour Law of 1994, the Trade Union Law of 2001, Occupational Health and Safety and social security. In theory, and in a perfect world, the rapid race to FDI impacts on the economy of the target State in much the same manner as the Marshall plan that brightened the horizon for West Germany after the Second World War. Analysts would be forgiven for assuming that it is only a matter of time before the standard of living and sophistication of infrastructure of China begins to reach levels that are on a par with Western markets. This does after all go hand in hand with development in many infrastructures such as pensions and insurance, banking, intellectual property enforcement, taxation and corporate governance. It is also assumed that the process of acceleration will become exponential due to China’s recent accession to the WTO. In March of 2003, three major institutions came together to convene the International Conference on the Labour Reform: Employment, Workers’ Rights and Labour Law in China. These were; the International Institute’s Advanced Study Centre (ASC), the Institute of Labour and Industrial Relations and the Centre for Chinese Studies. In addition delegates from the World Bank, Amnesty International and University of Michigan faculty members and event co-sponsors[1]. The central point of discussion for this two-day conference was to discuss changes to the labour market of China as a result of over twenty years of rapid economic reform. Interestingly, this conference went beyond the mere analysis of new laws and looked more closely into the socially impacting factors of implementation in order to illustrate the true reality for workers in post economic reform China. This conference illustrated the clear need for a social analysis of labour in addition to the more procedural concepts of law reform and economic policy changes. Chapter three will therefore provide the contrasting reality for workers and give an account of China’s weak implementation policies as well as the emergence of inequality of worker treatment due to geography, gender and, surprisingly, the corporate entity of the employer. Finally, no social, financial and economic analysis of labour in post economic reform China would be complete without also analysing the issue of China as a global influence that may be set to create an international benchmark for attracting FDI. Chapter three will explore this point with reference to the existing impact of China on the global investment scene. The question asked will be whether the international community has cause for concern given China’s poor implementation strategy against promising legal harmonisation such as recent accession to the WTO. This will raise the worrying issue of risking a trend within workers rights that will witness a ‘race to the bottom’. Chapter One: Analysis – Social-Economic reform in China AHistorical Changes to Labour The political reason for economic reform in China was derived from unrest between 1966 and 1976[2] in which there had been a loss of confidence in the communist regime. By instigating reforms towards the creation of an open market, the Government hoped to establish popularity in an ever more dissatisfied population[3]. In addition to politics, China instigated reforms as a result of practical necessity and clearly prioritised economic welfare over purely communist ideals. This revolutionary compromise saved the regime and is exclusively responsible for China’s preservation of communism to this day[4]. China initially instigated its experiment with private ownership in 1978 but prior to this time annual growth rates in industrial production were measured at an average of 9.59 percent between 1952 and 1978[5]. In addition, industrial capital assets increased by an average of 11.08 percent and this contrasted with employment growth of a mere 5.98 percent per annum[6] and a wage rate increase of a mere 0.1 percent! The increased labour was resourced from rural regions as prospects in these areas diminished and young people undertook economic migration in search of better wage rates in China’s urban centres. This displacement of the population placed pressure on the maintenance of food supplies into the cities and called upon increased spending on housing and public services. The resulting reduction in rural labour resources also resulted in a decrease in agricultural output thereby increasing food costs across the country. The response from the Chinese government was to prioritise on the development of industries that yielded the highest revenue and these were centred in the urban districts[7]. Unfortunately this resulted in a destabilization of equilibrium of employment availability between the urban and rural regions thereby resulting in increased unemployment in the latter by the late 1970s. The result was an increased migration of rural populations seeking work and numbered a staggering, albeit modest estimate of 5 to 6 million Chinese between the years of 1978 and 1980[8]. The Government was effectively faced with a crisis as the traditional communist solution to simply create jobs within state owned sectors proved to be wholly unrealistic given the scale of the problem. Clearly relaxation of FDI restrictions, coupled with the attractive incentive of low cost labour would open the door to investment from the West. It was also conceded by the Chinese Government that this economic reform would create widespread modernisation of existing infrastructures and provide a breeding ground for technological advancement, as well as facilitate greater responses to consumer demands[9]. The Chinese Government regarded the allowance for economic growth within a private sector to tackle the problem of unemployment and treated the venture as an experiment. However these areas of private growth had originally formed part of the old communist infrastructure and this alleviated the brunt of political connotation for creation of a thriving private sector within a socialist regime. As is typical for developing States, China utilised the system of allocating Special Economic Zones (SEZs) for the purpose of concentrating FDI into specific geographic locations. Allocation of the location of these zones began in the early 1980s and there are now five SEZs in the provinces of Guangdong, Fujian, Hainan Hunchun and Pudong (Shanghai). To this day these zones provide huge tax incentives in the early days of development and can typically entail tax exemption during the first years of business until profits are declared[10]. Thereafter a ‘Tax Clock’ is counted whereby corporations tax would fall payable after the second year of profitable business[11]. Tax is then chargeable at a discount until the end of year five[12]. This method does however create vast inequalities of economic wealth between SEZ and non SEZ regions. This will be discussed further in chapter insert. B.Direct Implications for Labour 1986 saw China make the bold step of awarding further preferential treatment to businesses within the SEZs that had been established with overseas capital. Under new regulations these firms were permitted to independently determine the size of their own workforce and were given carte blanche discretion on setting wages. In addition, the Government acknowledged the need for entrepreneurs and hence, increased freedoms for domestic companies. Earlier in 1978 China had therefore given leave for small, privately run businesses to be given permission to exist and grow. In 1981 the State Council set up regulations governing the business ventures of entrepreneurs. By 1988 large domestic companies had been awarded the same workforce level control and profit distribution freedoms as FDI funded companies[13]. Chapter Two: Understanding Labour Law in Post Reform China AUnderstanding Chinese Labour Market Structure In order to fully appreciate the effects labour reforms that were brought on by FDI and globalisation it is essential to fully understand the current labour market structure. There are now four types of in addition to privately owned companies and urban collectives. Firstly there are State owned enterprises which, while resembling a capitalist entity by being profit-driven, remains under the control of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)[14]. These enterprises form the historic legacy of the pre-reform days of centralised State planning. This type of entity is used for the implementation of public policy ventures. However, since these reforms have taken hold, there has been a need for wages to be competitively set in accordance with market trends thereby facilitating external, capitalist behaviour when dealing with human resources. Secondly township and village enterprises (TVEs) consist of groups of firms that are inextricably and contractually linked to the local governments of a township or village[15]. These types of business entity are restricted to the employment of local people and must adhere to stricter budget constraints than their state owned enterprise counterparts. Township and Village Enterprises are clearly also connected to local markets such as fishing and agriculture and are not subject to state planning policies for the implementation of public sector ventures. Thirdly Joint Ventures (JVs) are largely located in the five SEZs of the PRC where one party to the venture is a foreign investor. Where however domestic enterprises engage in a similar agreement, no such geographic restriction applies and as a result JVs tend to be scattered around the whole of the PRC. JVs enjoy the contractual freedom of being able ensure that they may hire and fire whomsoever they please within their constituent workforces and are therefore awarded far more flexibility than their state owned enterprise counterparts. Lastly, foreign owned firms are similar in this respect but they of course obtain far more advantageous tax advantages than any of the other three types of entity. This therefore means that of all the types of corporate forms, the foreign owned firm is by far the least restrained[16]. This description of the status of the various separate entities throughout the PRC is, as stated above, essential for a full understanding of the labour law reforms. Part B will now explain reform in relation to the Labour Law of 1994. Part C will do the same for the Trade Union law of 2001 and Parts C and D will explain current Chinese policies on Occupational Health and Safety and social security respectively. BThe Labour Law of 1994[17] The Labour law of China was passed by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress in 1994 and became effective on 1 January 1995 and was in fact the first substantive legal source for labour relations in the history of the PRC. The statute consists of a series of principles that are derived from China’s administrative regulations and, as will be seen, represents a clear desire of the PRC Government to create a system of labour and industrial relations that is far more in keeping with the international community’s standards. Interestingly, there exists a clear attempt to combine the two concepts of traditional command economy with the Western market economy ethos. This balancing act may seem to be a conceptually awkward marriage. Scope of the Law Article 4 of the Labour Law firmly states: â€Å"The employing units shall establish and perfect rules and regulations in accordance with the law so as to ensure that labourers enjoy the right to work and fulfil labour obligations.† The Labour Law of 1994 is applicable to all business entities, whether nationally or internationally owned and governs employment across the skills spectrum. The clear aim to remove distinctions in labour rights between the various skills types and corporate entities is a positive effort to create one high standard of rights for workers in China. A further aspect of the Labour Law is contract employment is given a great deal of attention within Chapter 3 of the Law whereby it has become necessary for all employment to be protected in accordance with a contract. Article 16 states: â€Å"A labour contract is the agreement reached between a labourer and an employing unit for the establishment of the labour relationship and the definition of the rights, interests and obligations of each party. A labour contract shall be concluded where a labour relationship is to be established.† Prior to the economic reforms that were brought on by unrest and global pressure, the PRC Government was solely responsible for the allocation of labour. Instead, the Labour law follows 1986 regulations[18] whereby the standard contract of employment is described. By 1995, the Ministry of Labour had stated that this contract employment system was already in operation among some 85% of the state workforce[19]. A further internationally respected issue of the Labour law is direct address to anti-discrimination. Article 12 states: â€Å"Labourers shall not be discriminated against in employment, regardless of their ethnic community, race, sex, or religious belief.† This is followed by Article 13 which provides that: â€Å"Females shall enjoy equal rights as males in employment. It shall not be allowed, in the recruitment of staff and workers, to use sex as a pretext for excluding females form employment or to raise recruitment standards for the females, except for the types of work or posts that are not suitable for females as stipulated by the State.† The issue of gender equality does in reality reflect the PRC’s existing policies of equality that are not unusual for a communist state. In addition to the Labour Law, the PRC also produced the Law on the Protection of Women’s Rights and Interests in 1992[20] and is in keeping with the international campaign of the United Nations Development Fund for Women[21] . The law also consists of mandatory periods of rest, restrictions to overtime and overtime pay. In relation to factories that are set up within the Special Economic Zones (SEZs) it is surprising to note that these mostly foreign owned companies are the worst culprits for worker exploitation. The reason for this is that the bulk of those employed are from the rural areas and tend to be on a temporary basis, which is associated with the fluctuating demands for labour in privately owned firms. This is by contrast to the state owned businesses that promote longevity of working contract as a legacy of the communist era. The Labour Law stipulates in Article 36 that workers are to be engaged for no more than 8 hours per day and that the working week is no to exceed 44 hours. In addition, Article 38 calls for the right to have at least one day off per week. It is also interesting to learn that only three months after the coming into effect of the Labour Law, one State Council reduced the mini mum standards of working hours within the Labour Law to a maximum of 8 hours per day for five days per week. The Labour Law also provides for criteria for the calculation of a minimum wage within Article 48, which specifies that: â€Å"The determination and readjustment of the standards on minimum wages shall be made with reference to the following factors in a comprehensive manner: the lowest living expenses of labourers themselves and the average family members they support; (2) the average wage level of the society as a whole; (3) labour productivity; the situation of employment; and the different levels of economic development between regions.† As stipulated above, Article 48 also provides for the reporting of wages to the State Council which means that the Central Government has the power to supervise wages across the nation. This is only a slightly more invasive policy than that of Western Civilisations that specify a minimum wage but is arguably superior given that the wording of Article 48 provides for relative considerations such as geographic cost of living and worker commitments in order to determine wage levels. This therefore means that deemed income that is sufficient for comfortable living is more realistically achievable for Chinese workers than many low income earners in the West. This also provides for the availability of a large amount of data concerning minimum wage levels across the PRC and there is a sizeable difference between the South Coast SEZ provinces by comparison to the Northern regions. This will be discussed further in Chapter 2. A new kind of relationship between the worker and the state The Labour Law has cleverly converted administrative sanctions into liability for breach of contract, thereby maintaining a sense of obligation for workers without the stigmatising concept of the over-lord State. An example of this can be seen in Article 25 which stipulates situations that would permit the revocation of the contract of employment: â€Å"The employing unit may revoke the labour contract with a labourer in any of the following circumstances: to be proved not up to the requirements for recruitment during the probation period; to seriously violate labour disciplines or the rules and regulations of the employing units; to cause great losses to the employing unit due to serious dereliction of duty or engagement in malpractice for selfish ends; and to be investigated for criminal responsibilities in accordance with the law.† Another example is the right to sue workers for damages in the event that they walk away from the job[22]. As regards the obligations and duties of the employer to the employees, the Labour Law deals with Legal Responsibility[23] of the employer exclusively in such areas as excessive overtime and breaches of occupational safety but these will be dealt with further in part D. This incentive of shifting the premise for disciplinary violation as a contractual breach is also in keeping with the PRC’s efforts to award legal personality to businesses, regardless of whether they are state or privately owned. Indeed, as far as state enterprises are concerned, there will be a marked change in its relationship towards its workers and the contractual format of establishing such a relationship will be the basis for this change. In addition it is clear that the Chinese Labour Law was written to combat the inevitable onslaught of problems of abuse of uneven bargain positions that are common in the West. Indeed, with the introduction of a market dependent labour force it is clear that Western style abuses would arise and that therefore, workers would require to be entitled to the internationally recognised right to privately instigate litigation. This does however contrast with continued State control over the process of employment termination and this reflects the ongoing strength of pre-reform ethics concerning security of employment. This therefore means that lay-offs are statutorily regulated, as is illustrated in Article 27 which stipulates a requirement to consult trade unions: â€Å"During the period of statutory consolidation when the employing unit comes to the brink of bankruptcy or runs deep into difficulties in production and management, and if reduction of its personnel becomes really necessary, the unit may make such reduction after it has explained the situation to the trade union or all of its staff and workers 30 days in advance, solicited opinions from them and reported to the labour administrative department.† The result of this law is that termination for employment as a means of increasing productivity is prohibited. The main reason for this is that communist manufacturing infrastructures create more than a mere job for labourers but also provide workers with an array of fringe benefits that overshadow those of Western counterparts. These benefits traditionally include housing and free medical care with the result that a loss of work often means a loss of home and health! Layoffs therefore carry serious implications for political upheaval and are to be avoided at all costs and an employment culture of relocation, retraining and early retirement is unlikely to arise in the foreseeable future[24]. This does contrast with pressures from both the World Bank and the World Trade Organisation of which China has now been a member since 11 December 2002[25] but in general it would be prudent for these global organisations to be sensitive to the impact of economic restructuring on a workforce that is dependent on the full-life-package derived through their employers. It does seem that the influence of FDI into China has led to reforms that result in the workforce becoming a mere producer of manufactured goods as opposed to a fully rounded human being with social needs. C.The revised Trade Union Laws of 2001[26] Following the economic reforms that have caused China to become globally open to FDI, the resulting reforms of labour laws and trends in labour activity have resulted in a new role for trade unions as safeguards of worker’s interests during the difficult period of reform that would give rise to dissatisfaction from the workforce. This is stipulated in the November 2001 report of the International Confederation of Trade Unions[27]. Interestingly this report regards the revised Trade Union laws of 2001 as representing only a minimal departure from the 1992 version. This earlier version had been heavily criticised by the International Labour Organisation’s Committee on Freedom of Association which condemned the 1992 law as a: â€Å"serious constraint on the rights of unions to establish their own constitutions, organize their activities and formulate programs.[28]† However, the following substantive analysis will reveal that Trade Unions have been awarded substantial powers in their role as organisations that are established to represent the welfare of the labour force but also maintain a central system of regulating these Trade Unions. As stated above, the original 1992 Trade Union Law was revised in 2001 in order to create a more comprehensive response to the continuing market foundation of the Chinese economy[29]. The role of the Trade Union is defined in the basic functions under Articles 2 and 6 of the Trade Union Law of 2002. Article 2 states that: â€Å"Trade unions are mass organizations of the working class formed by the workers and staff members on a voluntary basis. The All-China Federation of Trade Unions and all the trade union organizations under it represent the interests of the workers and staff members and safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of the workers and staff members according to law.† In addition, Article 6 states that the basic function of the Trade Union is the safeguarding of the rights and interests of workers. Further to this, Trade Unions are to coordinate labour relations and arrange for members to partake of democratic decision making and remain in close relation with workers as their representatives to employers. Before China’s economic reforms, Trade Unions were chiefly involved in the fringe benefits of workers such as education and welfare. This was based on the premise that worker unrest and industrial action were unique to capitalist regimes although the truth of this matter is debatable. It is however true that the profound change to relationships between the worker and the employer are significantly different to justify an alteration of the role of the Trade Union. One of the main differences is the realisation that workers can no longer be automatically enrolled into Trade Union Membership. According to Union Chairman and Politburo member Wie Jianxing[30] only 5% of workers in the private sector were actually Union members. This was by comparison to a mere 3.4% in township enterprises. Incentives to increase Union membership are therefore present in the 2001 Union Laws. Article 10 encourages increases in Union branches and recruitment drives by the more superior branches also form part of the Union policy of increased membership under Article 11. In addition, Article 43 and Chapter VI have been introduced to protect the interests of maintaining Union property and income. Clearly this issue could not have arisen under the pre-economic reform era of Chinese communism. This initial analysis of laws that are geared towards the protection of the Union does motivate us to question whether this has become a priority that exceeds the interests of workers. Clearly the path of the Chinese Government is to ensure that Trade Unions should work hard to remain at the forefront in order to continue to provide support to workers. This is especially important during a time in which Chinese workers are arguably more vulnerable in a commercial environment where traditional guarantees of life-time work and fringe benefits are becoming ever more unstable. In addition to the above changes, Article 20 stipulates increased power for Trade Unions in collective bargaining and in Article 21 a right has been created whereby the Union may interfere in disciplinary proceedings and unfair dismissals. In the case of workers taking their employer to court, the Trade Union is obliged to assist. Equally significant is the power for Unions to assist in strikes and work to rule action. Clearly the role here is for the Trade Union to act as the voice of the labour force and a theme of the collective, communist labour force versus the potentially corrupt, capitalist employer screams out through the provisions of the 2001 Law. Occupational Health and Safety are dealt with in relation to Trade Unions in Articles 23 to 26. Here Trade Unions have heightened powers in relation this matter which will be dealt with in greater detail under part C below. As regards the relationship between Occupational Health and Safety and Trade Unions, the latter are obliged to conduct investigations into accidents where there have been infringements of health and safety. Trade Unions also have the power under Articles 33 and 34 of the 2001 law to assist in the process of creating new labour laws, further health and safety regulations and policies relating to social security. Consultation rights are also enjoyed by Trade Unions under Articles 37 to 39 of the new 2001 law in relation to these self same issues of pay, health and safety, social security and the democratic election of ‘worker directors.’ By comparison to the old law relating to the power of Trade Unions it is clear that their increase in power is in response to exposure of China to the international community. It is therefore more of a protective mechanism in the face of a more mobile, market influenced labour force as opposed to any international Trade Union movement. In addition, the reforms ought not to be mistaken for a step in the direction of democracy. This is blatantly illustrated in Article 4 which announces a clear adherence to the Communist state: â€Å"Trade unions shall observe and safeguard the Constitution, take it as the fundamental criterion for their activities, take economic development as the central task, uphold the socialist

The History Of Cadbury Chocolates Marketing Essay

The History Of Cadbury Chocolates Marketing Essay Cadbury chocolate development is not very well in a few years before. There was international acquisition between Kraft, Mars, Nestle and Cadbury. As a result, Kraft won the acquisition which is successful to have ownership of Cadbury. In recent years, Cadbury promotes Daily Milk chocolate with using Youtube movie such as Cadbury Eyebrows. When this movie uploads to Youtube, it spreads faster in the world. The most special is background music. When everyone listen the music in everywhere, they must link up to Cadbury chocolate. Therefore, most of people pay more attention on Cadbury this brand name and their products. . In the current market, there will be used SWOT to analyze as below: Strength: The famous brand name in the world including Hong Kong. The brand has almost 200 years history. In 2007, Cadbury promote new 10 products which are focus on healthy and high class. In 2009, the Eyebrows movie has changed the Cadbury traditional styles to become trendy. Weakness: Cadbury did not launch chocolate premium in special festivals which are Valentines Day, Halloween ,Christmas and so on in recent years. Opportunities: Cadbury can enlarge their market share in Hong Kong. They can open a specialty shop for selling chocolate products such as chocolate snacks, chocolate drinks, and chocolate cakes. They can do more promotion like coupons, trial products for customers. Also, they can make a cross over with Oreo chocolate cookies. Its can enhance the brand awareness. Threat: Cadbury chocolate was discovered some products have salmonella and melamine in 2006 and 2008. It is enormous impact of the brand. Customers lost the confidence of Cadbury chocolates. Also, they have many competitors such as Kinder, Toblerone, Ferrero Rocher and the other chocolate products. 1a.Competitive analysis In Hong Kong, the main competitor of Cadbury is Mars, Incorporated. They have famous products in Hong Kong such as MMs, Dove, Mars and Maltesers. Besides, they have five principles in their mission which are Quality, Responsibility, Mutuality, Efficiency and Freedom. They are using these five principles to give the best to customers and fulfill their needs. It can keep the good relationship with customers. Moreover, there are using lots of promotion to their chocolate products. For example, advertising on TV, magazines and posters. Also, internet like Facebook and Youtube must be the main channels for selling products. Furthermore, Mars, Incorporated has lots of product lines with good reputation. Different types of product can match different types of customers. It will be the strength of the brand to attract different customers. Also, the company would like to use cartoon to be celebrity endorsement to attract children to buy chocolate such as MM chocolate product use cartoon characters to promote. It is very successful. In the weakness, the brand awareness is not higher. Because of too many product lines in the brand, so most of customers only know the line of the brand. They dont know the head of the brand is Mars, Incorporated. 2.Cadburys Marketing Strategy Cadbury is using marketing mix as their marketing strategy. Marketing mix can control four tactical marketing tools which are product, price, place and promotion in order to produce the response it wants in the target market. Cadbury can do everything to influence the demand of those chocolate products. Cadbury offers different flavor of chocolate to the children and their parents, for example milk chocolate, dark chocolate, fruit and nut chocolate and whole nut chocolate. They are provided with high quality as Cadbury launched the Cadbury Cocoa Partnership, developing cocoa farms in Ghana, India, Indonesia and the Caribbean. These places are suitable for the cultivation of cocoa beans, and therefore Cadbury can control the quality of cocoa beans to produce chocolate products. There are different package of the chocolate products such as boxes, bags and bars. So that customers have many choices on choosing the type of packaging and flavors, and all the products are sold under Cadburys brand name with purple packages. Besides, Cadbury use cost-based pricing to set the chocolate products. They set the price based on the costs for producing, distributing, and selling the products plus a fair rate of return for its effort and risk. Sometimes, they will offer some discounts to reward customers for certain responses. The forms of discounts include cash discount and quantity discount. They would like to lower price of the chocolate products or buy large volumes with price reduction to buyers. Such discounts provide an incentive to the consumers to buy more. About the promotion mix they use are advertising on TV and magazines, sales promotion and public relations. Cadbury can promote their products through these channels, bringing the message share the joy today to the potential customers, communicate customer value and build a loyalty relationship with them. In the London 2012, Cadbury is one of the sponsors in this event, creating the sports and stripes event to bring the excitement of London 2012. Also, Cadbury created a athlete team that can be used across the business to motivate and inspire. Cadbury chocolate products sell in the convenience store like 7-Eleven, Circle K, Vingo and supermarket. These places are the consumers most likely to shop. Cadbury is using intensive distribution strategy, stocking the chocolate products in many outlets. As a result, these chocolate are available in everywhere when consumers want them so as to provide brand exposure and consumer convenience. 3.Branding Strategy Cadbury is using line extension strategy to apply the products it sells. Cadbury is likely to introduce the additional items in a given product category under Cadburys brand name, such as new flavor( milk, dark chocolate, fruit nut, caramel, truffles), forms, colors(purple), ingredients( vegetarian, nut-absent, Gluten-absent) or package sizes ( bags, bars, boxes, tins). Line extension brings more benefits for the firms and consumers. For the Cadbury, they might introduce new chocolate in a lower cost and lower risk way. Also they might want to meet consumer desire for variety, use excess capacity or simply to command more shelf space from resellers, giving more choice to consumers. On the others, there might be self-cannibalization and consumer confusion if the added chocolates have no differentiations from customers perspective. 4.Product marketing 4a.Point-of-purchase Cadbury chocolates are selling in the supermarkets and convenience stores. There are many types of Cadbury products. Locations are large and rent is lower. Some stores are located near residential areas. 4b.Product Life-Cycle Stage Cadbury chocolates are in the maturity stage. They have brand loyalty because of the long history of the brand. However, some products are launched a long time. It will go to decline stage. Therefore, it needs to do more sales promotion and personal selling to retain customers. 4c.Product Uniqueness Cadbury chocolate products have point-of-different. Their unique point is Cadbury chocolates using Green packaging and Fair-trade. About green packaging, they are using packaging design and waste strategy. They have environment concern such as using paper, board and cellulose film materials to make their product package. It can achieve substantial development. Also, Cadbury Dairy Milk has announced the investment plans for its first Fair-trade social premium to cocoa farmers in Ghana. The packaging also has the fair trade label to show that producers have better living condition and consumers can use lower price to get the products. It is good for both parties in the business. 5.Promotional Mix Promotional mix refers the basic tools used to accomplish an organizations communication objectives. The promotional mix has included six elements: advertising, direct market, internet marketing, sales promotion, public relations and personal selling. Each element as an integrated marketing communications tool that plays a distinctive role in an IMC program. Advertising refers any pay form of nonpersonal communication about the organization, product, service, or idea by an identified sponsor. The nonpersonal component means that advertising involves mass media such as TV, poster, magazine that can transmit a message to large groups of individuals at the same time. Direct marketing refers organizations communicate directly with target customers to generate a response, it involves different activities such as direct selling, database management and direct response advertising through direct mail, the internet and broadcast. Internet Marketing refers the interative media allow for a back-and-forth flow of information whereby users can participate in and modify the form and content of the information they receive in real time. The new media allow users receive and alter information and images, respond to questions and make purchases. For the internet, the interactive media include interactive television and mobile phone. Sales promotion refers marketing activities that provide extra value or incentives to the sales force, the distributors, or the ultimate consumer and can stimulate immediate sales. Public relations refers the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procures of an individual or organization with the public interest, and executes an action to earn public understanding and acceptance, it is aims to establish and maintain a positive image of the company for the publics. Personal selling refers a form of person to person communication in which a seller attempts to assist prospective buyers to purchase the companys product or service or to act on an ideas. Cadbury used advertising, Sales promotions, Public relations and internet marketing to promote their companys product. For the advertising, Cadbury has poster in MTR and in store display at different supermarkets. The advantage of advertising is low promotional cost for the company, the interesting and beautiful poster or the in store display can attract customers attention. Also, the poster can let people watch a long time to know more the products details. The disadvantage of the advertising is it only can deliver a brief message about the product, it may only have a short term memory in customers mind. Moreover, the poster usually needs a larger place. Sometimes, it is difficult to find a suitable place for the companys poster and the poster is easily to be impaired by the human destruction or the weather condition. For the sales promotion, Cadbury has promoted the coupons and sweepstakes for the customer. For example, if the customers buy at least three products, it will have discount to buy the product. Also, Cadbury would holds some sweepstakes with other companies for the customers, the award will be concert tickets or some special drinks provide by other companies. The advantage of sales promotion is it can appeals price sensitive to consumers and offer discounts without retailer cooperation. Also, the promotional activities will easily attract the customers buy more products and it may motivate non target group customers try to taste the product and encourage customers buy the product again. The disadvantage of sales promotion is the cost will increase and low redemption rates. It often used by loyal consumers who would purchase anyway and hard to tell how many consumers will use them and when. Consumers only focus on sweepstakes, not brand. Sometimes, it may misredemption and fraud such as customer redemption for a product or size not specified on the coupon. For the public relations, Cadbury has a sponsorship with the Olympic 2012 in London. The advantage of public relations is it can enhance the companys brand awareness for the customers, It will increase the brand visibility. The disadvantage of public relations is it cannot deliver the products message to customers and the cost of sponsored usually be high. For the internet marketing, Cadbury has Facebook fans pages and Apps in the smartphone play store to provide the latest product information to the customers. The advertising of the internet is target marketing and information access. Target marketing means the Web is the ability to target very specific groups. Information access means the customers can find the products information in the website. The advantage of internet is two way forms of communication. Also, it offers the capability to more closely and precisely measure the effects of advertising and other types of promotion. The disadvantage of internet is customers may lack of motivate to find the advertisement to know the details of product. 6.Media Mix Media mix refers a wide variety of media and media vehicles are available to advertisers. The characteristics of the product or service, the size of the budget, and individual preference are some factors to determine what combination of media will be used. According to different promotional situation, the companies will use different promotional strategy such as TV, coupons and internet. TV is the most effective medium, coupons can stimulate customers to buy the products, Internet can help customers to find the in-depth information. Cadbury has some advertisements on TV. The advantages of TV are creativity and impact, coverage and cost effectiveness, captivity and attention, and selectivity and flexibility. For the creativity and impact, TV has provided a platform for presenting the advertising message. The sight and sound are creative and it can convey the brands image to develop the entertaining appeals that help make a dull product appear interesting. For the coverage and cost effectiveness, the advertising of TV make it possible to reach large audiences, the companies with widespread distribution and availability of their products use TV to deliver their messages at a low cost, it is very cost efficiently. For the captivity and attention, even to increase in viewing options and the automatic devices have made it easier for TV viewers to avoid commercial messages. However, the remaining viewers are devoted some attention on the advertisings messages that means the TV advertising have an effect on consumers mi nd through the repetition and slogans. For the selectivity and flexibility, with the growth of cable TV, the advertiser can refine their coverage further by appealing to groups with specific interests such as sports, news or music. The advertisers can adjust the media strategies of different geographic markets through local advertising in specific market areas and the advertising can run repeatedly of special occasions. The disadvantage of TV is high cost of buying airtime and producing a quality commercial. The geographic selectivity is a problem for local advertisers, TV still cannot offers as much audience selectivity as magazines or direct email for reaching precise segments of the market. The advertising of TV usually leave nothing tangible for the viewer to consider because the time of advertising become shorter and shorter. Moreover, the audience usually did not watch TV in advertising time, they may leave the room to go to the bathroom or get something to drink or eat. Sometimes, the audience may change TV channels to avoid the advertising. 7.Recommendation For the personal selling, when the Cadbury launch new product, they can recruit some short-term promoters to promote the new product. Also, the company can launch more promote events such as free tasting, It can attract the new customers. For the public relation, Cadbury can create more sponsorship with other sports competition and charity to increase the companys image and visibility. Also, the company can have celebrities endorsement, the company can use cartoon characters, famous stars to attract target customers. For example, Johnny Depp, he is a famous film called Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, the theme of this movie is perfect match with Cadburys product. 8.Conclusion After doing the project, we discovered the products in Hong Kong are different from United Kingdom. Compared with Hong Kong, Cadbury is offer more products in UK. There are many types of chocolate products with different package in UK, for example truffles, hazelnut, peanut, toffee popcorn, Oreo chocolate and chocolate drinks. The packages are tins, boxes and bags. However, Hong Kong without these products/ Besides, the Cadburys products in Hong Kong are lack of creative packaging. They will not put more effort on designing the package during Halloween, Christmas, Chinese New Year and Easter. Thus, it cannot attract customers for buying and have no incentive on it. Moreover, Cadbury lack of direct marketing to communicate with consumers although they have advertising on TV, magazines and poster. As a result, there are some improvements. Firstly, Cadbury can introduce more products in a new product line by using brand extension. They can launch a new product or modified products in a new category under Cadburys brand name like chocolate drinks or chocolate ice-cream. From the customer perspective, they will be faster acceptance because Cadbury has long history and well-known in making chocolate. Also they can increase brand usage rate, increasing the frequency with Cadbury the consumer is consumed and making it easier to use and reduce the disincentives for use like sugar-free chocolate. Therefore, it can attract more customers to aware and buy it as the product is innovative and creative. In addition, Cadbury can operate a retail shop to sell their own products, decorating the store as a fairy tale and offering chocolate cake and chocolate drinks. So that customers can enjoy the use of these services and enhancing the brand awareness. Furthermore, Cadbury can be more concentrated on Hong Kong markets since Hong Kong market as the strategic point to enter China market, to be easier to enter China market in the future. Finally, promotion is rather important for Cadbury building its recognition. Since Cadbury can use promotional tools to persuasively communicate consumer value and building relationship with them. They cannot only have advertising on broadcast media and magazines. They can also have point-of-purchase advertising, display the chocolate products in the store shelf, thus reaching more customers and they can be aware of it. Outdoor advertising is also suitable. Signs on buses or MTR can be draw customers attention. Cadbury is the largest chocolate company in the world. We think that Cadbury do not only concentrate on the Americas markets since Asian and European markets are valuable to develop.

Relativism Essay -- ethics beliefs cultural relativism essays papers

The year was 1943. Hundreds of Jewish people were being marched into the gas chambers in accordance with Adolf Hitler's orders. In the two years that followed, millions of Jews were killed and only a fraction survived the painful ordeals at the Nazi German prison camps. However, all of the chaos ended as World War II came to a close: the American and British soldiers had won and Hitler's Third Reich was no more. A certain ethical position would state that the anti-sematic Nazi German culture was neither right nor wrong in its actions. In fact, it is this view of the cultural relativist that assumes all actions considered right in a culture to be good for that culture alone. Moreover, the relativist claims that these actions cannot be judged according to their ethical correctness because there is no absolute standard by which they could be compared. In the above case, this position would not allow for the American and British soldiers to interfere with the Nazis; the relativist would claim that the Allies were wrong in fighting the Germans due to a cultural disagreement. In truth, it is the relativist position which has both negative logical and practical consequences, and negligible benefits. The first logical consequence of relativism is that the believer must contradict himself in order to uphold his belief. The view states that all ethics are relative while putting forth the idea that no absolute standard of rightness exists. If this is the case, then what is cultural relativism relative to? From a purely logical point of view, this idea is absurd, for in assuming that something is relative one must first have some absolute by which it is judged. Let the reader consider this example to reinforce the point. A young woman is five feet tall, and her older friend is six feet tall. The younger female considers herself short because she looks at her friend and sees that she is taller than her. It would be illogical to say that the first woman is short if she were the only female in existence; if this were the case then there would not be anyone for her to be relative to in height. However, this logical fallacy is what the relativist assumes by stating that there is no standard of rightness for relativity. Quite simply, the cultural relativist is stating that he is relative to an absolute which ... ...at there cannot be any moral progress in a culture per-say. As discussed, the negligible benefits of cultural relativism such as tolerance, lacking of an absolute standard, and an open mind can only be applied to a limited range of instances. As previously shown, extreme relativism "in its vulgar and unregenerate form7" leads to stagnation of cultural morals and passive acceptance of ethical injustice. Of course, just as in any ethical theory, there are some things to be learned from it. One of these is the idea of not being too critical of other cultures. Also, the theory shows the importance of not becoming so culturalcentric that one looses the ability to learn from other socities. In truth, if more cultures tempered their tolerance with wisdom, then many of the evils that plague us could be effectively eliminated. --- End Notes 1. Rachels, James. "The Challenge of Cultural Relativism." Reason and Responsibility. Ed. Joel Feinberg. p. 454. 2. Rachels, p. 454. 3. Rachels, p. 454. 4. Rachels, p. 455. 5. Rachels, p. 455. 6. Rachels, p. 457. 7. Williams, Bernard. "Relativism." Reason and Responsibility. Ed. Joel Feinberg. p. 451.